Climate Change Fueling Conflicts and Banditry in Northen Kenya: Can Blue Economy Concept be a remedy?
Main Article Content
Keywords
Climate change, vulnerabilities, banditry, conflicts, pastoralist communities, ASAL, vulnerabilities, banditry, conflicts, pastoralist communities, ASAL, Northen, blue economy
Abstract
Climate change is creating unparalleled global challenges, disrupting ecosystems, threatening livelihoods, and intensifying existing vulnerabilities. In Northern Kenya, a region dominated by arid and semi-arid landscapes, rising conflicts and banditry have been linked to dwindling resources driven by climate-related pressures. The ongoing longstanding tensions between herders and landowners have led to increasingly organized and violent attacks, heightening intercommunal tensions. This study examined the nexus between climate change and the surge in conflicts and banditry in Northern Kenya, emphasizing the need for innovative and sustainable solutions. Data for this review was obtained from Google Scholar, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, JSTOR, Semantic Scholar, Research Gate, Academia, Scopus and Crossref references and citation-enhanced indexing databases. Thematic analysis of publications between 2004 and 2024 was conducted to assess how climate change is exacerbating ongoing conflicts banditry in Northen Kenya. The findings indicated a link between the rise in persistent banditry in Northern Kenya and the severity of climate-related factors such as prolonged droughts, extreme heat, livestock diseases, and food shortages. This worsening situation is compounded by historical marginalization, ethnic tensions, weak law enforcement, and the spread of illegal firearms from nearby regions. This escalation is further intensified by experiences of marginalization, ethnic rivalries, inadequate policing and influx of illicit arms from neighboring countries. As a potential remedy, the Blue Economy concept is a holistic approach emphasizes the sustainable utilization of aquatic resources, offering opportunities for economic diversification, employment generation and ecosystem preservation. Implementation of this concept involves adopting sustainable water management practices, including rainwater harvesting and watershed management, which can be leveraged for aquaculture. This shift can decrease reliance on livestock and small-scale rainfed agriculture, thereby reducing vulnerabilities. The National and local governments as well as donors should invest in infrastructure development, such as cold storage facilities, transportation networks and processing plants, to support the growth of Blue Economy activities. In addition, provide training programs and educational initiatives to equip local communities with the skills needed for sustainable resource management within the Blue Economy framework.
References
Adeoye, N. O. (2019). Locational analysis of seasonal migration of nomadic pastoralists in a part of northern Nigeria. The Geographical Bulletin, 60(1), 5-23. https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/thegeographicalbulletin/vol60/iss1/6/
Ahmed, K. M. (2012). Intercommunal conflict over natural resource: the case of Northern Kenya, 1963-2011 (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi, Kenya). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/11404
Ali, A. (2017). The challenges facing poverty alleviation and financial inclusion in North-East Kenya Province (NEKP). International Journal of Social Economics, 44(12), 2208-2223. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/ijse-05-2016-0133/full/html
Ameso, E. A., Bukachi, S. A., Olungah, C. O., Haller, T., Wandibba, S., & Nangendo, S. (2018). Pastoral resilience among the maasai pastoralists of Laikipia County, Kenya. Land, 7(2), 78. https://doi.org/10.3390/land7020078
Blocher, J. (2018). Fleeing from arid lands: Pastoralism in the context of climate change. In Routledge Handbook of Environmental Displacement and Migration (pp. 188-204). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315638843-15/fleeing-arid-lands-julia-blocher
Bonneau, P. (2013). Drought and internal displacements of pastoralits in Northern Kenya in 2012: an assessment. The state of environmental migration. http://labos.ulg.ac.be/hugo/wp-content/uploads/sites/38/2017/11/The-State-of-Environmental-Migration-2013-101-116.pdf
Boru, M. G. (2016). Factors influencing conflicts among pastoralists communities; a case of the Borana and Gabra communities of the Marsabit county; Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/100997
Bunei, E. K., McElwee, G., & Smith, R. (2016). From bush to butchery: cattle rustling as an entrepreneurial process in Kenya. Society and Business review, 11(1), 46-61. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/sbr-10-2015-0057/full/html
Crisis Group Africa (2023). Absorbing Climate Shocks and Easing Conflict in Kenya’s Rift Valley. https://icg-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-04/b189-kenya-climate-shocks_1.pdf
Cullis, A. (2021). Understanding the livestock economy in South Sudan. Tana Copenhagen Aps. https://tanacopenhagen.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Field-Report.pdf
Dami, C. D. (2021). Impacts of terrorism, banditry and kidnapping on human security in Nigeria. Saudi Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 6(8), 299-305. https://www.saudijournals.com/media/articles/SJHSS_68_299-305.pdf
Dan, M. E., Olaka, L. A., Mamo, M. B., Chalo, D. M., & Cuni-Sanchez, A. (2021). Desert landscape services: Insights from pastoralist communities in northern Kenya. Ecosystem Services, 48, 101243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2021.101243
Danish Refugee Council (2022). Drought-Affected Populations In Northern Kenya. https://pro.drc.ngo/media/p2ap4yxl/drc-kenya-drought-needs-assessment-oct-22.pdf
de Leeuw, J., Osano, P., Said, M., Ayantunde, A., Dube, S., Neely, C., ... & Ericksen, P. (2019). The pastoral farming system: Balancing between tradition and transition. Farming Systems and Food Security in Africa, 318-353. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315658841-10/pastoral-farming-system-jan-de-leeuw-philip-osano-mohammed-said-augustine-ayantunde-sikhalazo-dube-constance-neely-anton-vrieling-philip-thornton-polly-ericksen
Degen, A. A. (2011). Transformation of Borana from nomadic pastoralists to agropastoralists and shift of livestock from cattle to include more goats, camels and sheep in Southern Ethiopia. International Journal of Business and Globalisation, 6(3-4), 292-312. https://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJBG.2011.039389
Elzahi Saaid Ali, A. (2022). The Challenges Facing Poverty Alleviation and Financial Inclusion in North-East Kenyan Province (NEKP). In Empowering the Poor through Financial and Social Inclusion in Africa: An Islamic Perspective (pp. 25-47). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/ijse-05-2016-0133/full/html
Ember, C. R., Abate Adem, T., Skoggard, I., & Jones, E. C. (2012). Livestock raiding and rainfall variability in northwestern Kenya. Civil Wars, 14(2), 159-181. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13698249.2012.679497
Fratkin, E. (2001). East African pastoralism in transition: Maasai, Boran, and Rendille cases. African studies review, 44(3), 1-25. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/article/abs/east-african-pastoralism-in-transition-maasai-boran-and-rendille-cases/6890909E32B9300713E5045FF4A65535
Froese, R., & Schilling, J. (2019). The nexus of climate change, land use, and conflicts. Current climate change reports, 5, 24-35. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40641-019-00122-1
Gakuria, A. R. (2013). Natural resource-based conflict among pastoralist communities in Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/58420
Galaty, J. (2016). Boundary-making and pastoral conflict along the Kenyan–Ethiopian Borderlands. African Studies Review, 59(1), 97-122. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/article/abs/boundarymaking-and-pastoral-conflict-along-the-kenyanethiopian-borderlands/AEA3CBCADC4D6571CB38353EEF768A03
Gebeyehu, A. K., Sonneveld, B. G., & Snelder, D. J. (2021). Identifying hotspots of overgrazing in pastoral areas: Livestock mobility and fodder supply–demand balances in Nyangatom, Lower Omo Valley, Ethiopia. Sustainability, 13(6), 3260. https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/6/3260
Guyo, S. S. (2019). Assessment Of The Dynamics Of Resource-Based Conflict On Human Security In Kenya: A Case Study Of Isiolo County (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/108181
Huho, J. M., Ngaira, J. K., & Ogindo, H. O. (2011). Living with drought: the case of the Maasai pastoralists of northern Kenya. Educational Research, 2(1), 779-789.
Hussein, M. U. (2015). Influence of indigenous drought management strategies on the livelihood system of pastoralists in Mandera west sub county, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/90561
Ibrahim, M. (2010). The impacts of ethnicity and conflict in Kenya (north eastern province): case study of Mandera District. https://ir.kiu.ac.ug/handle/20.500.12306/9701
Ifejika Speranza, C. (2010). Drought coping and adaptation strategies: Understanding adaptations to climate change in agro-pastoral livestock production in Makueni district, Kenya. The European Journal of Development Research, 22, 623-642. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/ejdr.2010.39
Kaprom, T. P. (2013). Effects of cattle rustling on economic development a case of Masol Location, West Pokot County. https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/55798
Khisa, C. S., Were, E., & Amuta, M. (2016). Trends in livestock rustling and the dynamics of socio-economic development in Samburu and Marsabit counties in Kenya. Strateg J Bus Chang Manag, 3(4), 1437-1451. www.strategicjournals.com
Khomo, L., Hartshorn, A. S., Rogers, K. H., & Chadwick, O. A. (2011). Impact of rainfall and topography on the distribution of clays and major cations in granitic catenas of southern Africa. Catena, 87(1), 119-128. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S034181621100107X
Kimaiyo, D. M. (2016). Women involvement in cattle rustling between the Marakwet and the Pokot communities of North-Western Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/97405
Kimani, A. G. (2021). Gender Transformation In Cattle Rustling And Its Implications On Security Management In West Pokot County, Kenya (Doctoral Dissertation, Kenyatta University). https://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/server/api/core/bitstreams/51715194-b99d-4dee-a79e-0808364ef1c3/content
Kimokoti, S. N. (2022). Cattle Rustling In Kenya: a review of the root causes, emerging trajectories and mitigation strategies. EPRA International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research (IJMR), 8(4), 119-124.
KIPPRA (2023). Enhancing Peace and Security in Kenya through Mitigation of Climate Change. https://kippra.or.ke/enhancing-peace-and-security-in-kenya-through-mitigation-of-climate-change/
KIPRRA (2012). Vision 2030 Development Strategy for Northern Kenya and other Arid Lands. Government of the Republic of Kenya. Government of the Republic of Kenya
Kirui, L. K., Jensen, N. D., Obare, G. A., Kariuki, I. M., Chelanga, P. K., & Ikegami, M. (2022). Pastoral livelihood pathways transitions in northern Kenya: The process and impact of drought. Pastoralism, 12(1), 23. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13570-022-00240-w
Koske, J. C. (2014). Vulnerability to climate change and conflict, its impact on livelihoods and the enjoyment of human rights: case study: Pastoral communities in Northern Kenya (Turkana, Pokot and Samburu Districts) (Master's thesis, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås). https://nmbu.brage.unit.no/nmbu-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/225296/koske_master2014.pdf?sequence=4
Kumssa, A., Jones, J. F., & Herbert Williams, J. (2009). Conflict and human security in the North Rift and North Eastern Kenya. International Journal of social economics, 36(10), 1008-1020. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/03068290910984786/full/html
Leming’ani, C. R. (2017). Resource based conflicts between white settlers and Pastoralists in the horn of Africa: A case study of Laikipia County in Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11295/102159/Final%20TO%20BE%20%20Printed.....Repaired.pdf?sequence=4
Leshan, M. T., & Standslause, O. E. (2013). Adaptation to the harsh conditions of the arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya: Is Pastoralism the best livelihood option. Asian J. Appl. Sci, 2(4), 22-29. http://www.ajsc.leena-luna.co.jp/AJSCPDFs/Vol.2(4)/AJSC2013(2.4-03).pdf
Mamo, I. (2018). Climate Variability And Cattle Rustling Amongst Pastoralist Communities In The Horn Of Africa: A Case Study Of Marsabit County In Northern Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/105700
Marete, J. G. (2018). The Effects of Pastoral Conflicts on Secondary Education in Kenya: a Case Study of East Pokot (Doctoral dissertation, university of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/104719
Mburu, W. N. (2018). An Analysis of the Protracted Nature of Pastoral Conflicts in East Africa: a Case Study of Northern Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/105775
Mkutu, K. (2001). Pastoralism and conflict in the Horn of Africa (pp. 45-pp). London: Saferworld. Organisation. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/124889/WebLaikipia.pdf
Mohamed, B. (2018). An analysis of local perceptions of the role of drought in exacerbating contemporary pastoral conflict in northern Kenya: a case study of Marsabit County. https://open.uct.ac.za/items/5c9a70c8-5ea7-44ec-a3af-2502f6fe6c3a
Musau, D. M., Ichani, F. X., & Mulu, F. (2023). Assessment of Banditry, Cattle Rustling and Insecurity Nexus in North West Kenya. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 7(4), 132-148. https://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/server/api/core/bitstreams/77b6b435-9148-416d-b918-f97442755297/content
Mutuku, M. (2017). The Inter-ethnic Conflict Management in the Horn of Africa: the Case Study of the Borana and Rendile of Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/102197
Mwanyumba, P. M. (2014). Pastoralist livelihoods, livestock herd dynamics and trade in Garissa County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/75465
Mwenda, I. M. (2021). Influence of small arms and light weapons proliferation control on human security among the Rendille community of Marsabit county, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation). http://ir-library.mmarau.ac.ke:8080/handle/123456789/12358
Ngugi, S. K. (2020). An Assessment Of The Effectiveness Of Adoption Of Alternative Livelihood Strategies On Socio-Economic Wellbeing Of Pastoral Communities In Kajiado County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/154323
Njenga, M. K., Ogolla, E., Thumbi, S. M., Ngere, I., Omulo, S., Muturi, M., ... & Osoro, E. M. (2020). Comparison of knowledge, attitude, and practices of animal and human brucellosis between nomadic pastoralists and non-pastoralists in Kenya. BMC public health, 20, 1-10. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12889-020-8362-0
Njiru, B. N. (2012). Climate change, resource competition, and conflict amongst pastoral communities in Kenya. In Climate change, human security and violent conflict: Challenges for societal stability (pp. 513-527). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-28626-1_24
OCHA, (2022). Drought situation in the Kenya ASAL areas now at crisis level. https://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/drought-situation-kenya-asal-areas-now-crisis-level
Ogeto, P. M. (2023). Cattle Rustling and Banditry in the Rift Valley: Is It Culture or Food Security and Climate Change Adoptability?. Laikipia University Journal Of Social Sciences, Education And Humanities, 1(1). http://41.89.103.51/index.php/jsseh/article/view/28
Onyango K. O. (2021). Heavy siltation cuts fish stocks in Lake Turkana. Business Daily .https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/data-hub/heavy-siltation-cuts-fish-stocks-lake-turkana-3574846
Opiyo, F., Wasonga, O., Nyangito, M., Schilling, J., & Munang, R. (2015). Drought adaptation and coping strategies among the Turkana pastoralists of northern Kenya. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 6, 295-309. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13753-015-0063-4
Osamba, J. O. (2000). The sociology of insecurity: cattle rustling and banditry in North-Western Kenya. African Journal on Conflict Resolution, 1(2), 11-37. https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC16233
Ouda, J. O. (2017). Climate Change, Resource Scarcity And Violent Conflict In The Horn Of Africa A Case Study Of Turkana County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/101983
Rabi’u, U., & Muhammad, H. H. (2022). An Assessment Of The Causes And Effects Of Cattle Rustling And Banditry In Zamfara State, North-Western Nigeria. Zamfara Journal of Politics and Development, 3(3), 14-14.
Ruto, S. J., Ongwenyi, Z. N., & Mugo, J. K. (2010). Educational marginalisation in northern Kenya. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report. https://www.dlci-hoa.org/assets/upload/education-documents/20200804021314369.pdf
Said, F. I. (2020). Effectiveness Of Cattle Rustling Mitigation Strategies Among Pastoral Communities: A Case Of Loima Sub County, Turkana County (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/154080
Schilling, J., & Werland, L. (2023). Facing old and new risks in arid environments: The case of pastoral communities in Northern Kenya. PLOS Climate, 2(7), e0000251. https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000251
Sharamo, R. (2014). The politics of pastoral violence: a case study of Isiolo County, northern Kenya. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a089c4ed915d3cfd000408/FAC_Working_Paper_095.pdf
Sitima, A. M. (2015). Disarming belligerent communities in Africa: a case study of disarmament efforts in Samburu and Baringo communities of Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/94655
Sobania, N. (2019). Pastoralist migration and colonial policy: A case study from northern Kenya. In The Ecology of Survival (pp. 219-239). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429310249-11/pastoralist-migration-colonial-policy-case-study-northern-kenya-neal-sobania
Thendiu, I. N. (2009). The role of Livestock marketing in improving the pastoralists' livelihoods through income generation: the case of the pastoralist communities of Garissa District, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi, Kenya). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/5163
Volpato, G., & King, E. G. (2019). From cattle to camels: trajectories of livelihood adaptation and social-ecological resilience in a Kenyan pastoralist community. Regional Environmental Change, 19, 849-865. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10113-018-1438-z
Wafula, W. M., Wasonga, O. V., Koech, O. K., & Kibet, S. (2022). Factors influencing migration and settlement of pastoralists in Nairobi City, Kenya. Pastoralism, 12, 1-14. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13570-021-00204-6
Waikenda, J. W. (2017). The concept of environmentally-induced conflict: A case study of northern Kenya, 1963-2012. International Academic Journal of Arts and Humanities, 1(1), 159-250. http://www.iajournals.org/articles/iajah_v1_i1_159_250.pdf
Wanjara, A. O., & Ogembo, P. O. (2023). Impact of Climate Change on Health and Livelihoods of Pastoral Communities in Kenya: A Case of North Eastern Region. Indonesian Journal of Social and Environmental Issues (IJSEI), 4(3), 299-315. https://www.ojs.literacyinstitute.org/index.php/ijsei/article/view/1078
Watete, P. W., Makau, W. K., Njoka, J. T., MacOpiyo, L. A., & Wasonga, O. V. (2016). Moving in and out of poverty: a case of the Somali and Turkana of Northern Kenya. Nomadic Peoples, 20(1), 123-140. https://doi.org/10.3197/np.2016.200108
Witsenburg, K. M., & Adano, W. R. (2014). Of rain and raids: Violent livestock raiding in northern Kenya. In A Micro-Sociology of Violence (pp. 118-142). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315872179-7/rain-raids-karen-witsenburg-wario-adano
Ahmed, K. M. (2012). Intercommunal conflict over natural resource: the case of Northern Kenya, 1963-2011 (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi, Kenya). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/11404
Ali, A. (2017). The challenges facing poverty alleviation and financial inclusion in North-East Kenya Province (NEKP). International Journal of Social Economics, 44(12), 2208-2223. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/ijse-05-2016-0133/full/html
Ameso, E. A., Bukachi, S. A., Olungah, C. O., Haller, T., Wandibba, S., & Nangendo, S. (2018). Pastoral resilience among the maasai pastoralists of Laikipia County, Kenya. Land, 7(2), 78. https://doi.org/10.3390/land7020078
Blocher, J. (2018). Fleeing from arid lands: Pastoralism in the context of climate change. In Routledge Handbook of Environmental Displacement and Migration (pp. 188-204). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315638843-15/fleeing-arid-lands-julia-blocher
Bonneau, P. (2013). Drought and internal displacements of pastoralits in Northern Kenya in 2012: an assessment. The state of environmental migration. http://labos.ulg.ac.be/hugo/wp-content/uploads/sites/38/2017/11/The-State-of-Environmental-Migration-2013-101-116.pdf
Boru, M. G. (2016). Factors influencing conflicts among pastoralists communities; a case of the Borana and Gabra communities of the Marsabit county; Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/100997
Bunei, E. K., McElwee, G., & Smith, R. (2016). From bush to butchery: cattle rustling as an entrepreneurial process in Kenya. Society and Business review, 11(1), 46-61. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/sbr-10-2015-0057/full/html
Crisis Group Africa (2023). Absorbing Climate Shocks and Easing Conflict in Kenya’s Rift Valley. https://icg-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-04/b189-kenya-climate-shocks_1.pdf
Cullis, A. (2021). Understanding the livestock economy in South Sudan. Tana Copenhagen Aps. https://tanacopenhagen.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Field-Report.pdf
Dami, C. D. (2021). Impacts of terrorism, banditry and kidnapping on human security in Nigeria. Saudi Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 6(8), 299-305. https://www.saudijournals.com/media/articles/SJHSS_68_299-305.pdf
Dan, M. E., Olaka, L. A., Mamo, M. B., Chalo, D. M., & Cuni-Sanchez, A. (2021). Desert landscape services: Insights from pastoralist communities in northern Kenya. Ecosystem Services, 48, 101243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2021.101243
Danish Refugee Council (2022). Drought-Affected Populations In Northern Kenya. https://pro.drc.ngo/media/p2ap4yxl/drc-kenya-drought-needs-assessment-oct-22.pdf
de Leeuw, J., Osano, P., Said, M., Ayantunde, A., Dube, S., Neely, C., ... & Ericksen, P. (2019). The pastoral farming system: Balancing between tradition and transition. Farming Systems and Food Security in Africa, 318-353. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315658841-10/pastoral-farming-system-jan-de-leeuw-philip-osano-mohammed-said-augustine-ayantunde-sikhalazo-dube-constance-neely-anton-vrieling-philip-thornton-polly-ericksen
Degen, A. A. (2011). Transformation of Borana from nomadic pastoralists to agropastoralists and shift of livestock from cattle to include more goats, camels and sheep in Southern Ethiopia. International Journal of Business and Globalisation, 6(3-4), 292-312. https://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJBG.2011.039389
Elzahi Saaid Ali, A. (2022). The Challenges Facing Poverty Alleviation and Financial Inclusion in North-East Kenyan Province (NEKP). In Empowering the Poor through Financial and Social Inclusion in Africa: An Islamic Perspective (pp. 25-47). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/ijse-05-2016-0133/full/html
Ember, C. R., Abate Adem, T., Skoggard, I., & Jones, E. C. (2012). Livestock raiding and rainfall variability in northwestern Kenya. Civil Wars, 14(2), 159-181. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13698249.2012.679497
Fratkin, E. (2001). East African pastoralism in transition: Maasai, Boran, and Rendille cases. African studies review, 44(3), 1-25. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/article/abs/east-african-pastoralism-in-transition-maasai-boran-and-rendille-cases/6890909E32B9300713E5045FF4A65535
Froese, R., & Schilling, J. (2019). The nexus of climate change, land use, and conflicts. Current climate change reports, 5, 24-35. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40641-019-00122-1
Gakuria, A. R. (2013). Natural resource-based conflict among pastoralist communities in Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/58420
Galaty, J. (2016). Boundary-making and pastoral conflict along the Kenyan–Ethiopian Borderlands. African Studies Review, 59(1), 97-122. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/article/abs/boundarymaking-and-pastoral-conflict-along-the-kenyanethiopian-borderlands/AEA3CBCADC4D6571CB38353EEF768A03
Gebeyehu, A. K., Sonneveld, B. G., & Snelder, D. J. (2021). Identifying hotspots of overgrazing in pastoral areas: Livestock mobility and fodder supply–demand balances in Nyangatom, Lower Omo Valley, Ethiopia. Sustainability, 13(6), 3260. https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/6/3260
Guyo, S. S. (2019). Assessment Of The Dynamics Of Resource-Based Conflict On Human Security In Kenya: A Case Study Of Isiolo County (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/108181
Huho, J. M., Ngaira, J. K., & Ogindo, H. O. (2011). Living with drought: the case of the Maasai pastoralists of northern Kenya. Educational Research, 2(1), 779-789.
Hussein, M. U. (2015). Influence of indigenous drought management strategies on the livelihood system of pastoralists in Mandera west sub county, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/90561
Ibrahim, M. (2010). The impacts of ethnicity and conflict in Kenya (north eastern province): case study of Mandera District. https://ir.kiu.ac.ug/handle/20.500.12306/9701
Ifejika Speranza, C. (2010). Drought coping and adaptation strategies: Understanding adaptations to climate change in agro-pastoral livestock production in Makueni district, Kenya. The European Journal of Development Research, 22, 623-642. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/ejdr.2010.39
Kaprom, T. P. (2013). Effects of cattle rustling on economic development a case of Masol Location, West Pokot County. https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/55798
Khisa, C. S., Were, E., & Amuta, M. (2016). Trends in livestock rustling and the dynamics of socio-economic development in Samburu and Marsabit counties in Kenya. Strateg J Bus Chang Manag, 3(4), 1437-1451. www.strategicjournals.com
Khomo, L., Hartshorn, A. S., Rogers, K. H., & Chadwick, O. A. (2011). Impact of rainfall and topography on the distribution of clays and major cations in granitic catenas of southern Africa. Catena, 87(1), 119-128. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S034181621100107X
Kimaiyo, D. M. (2016). Women involvement in cattle rustling between the Marakwet and the Pokot communities of North-Western Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/97405
Kimani, A. G. (2021). Gender Transformation In Cattle Rustling And Its Implications On Security Management In West Pokot County, Kenya (Doctoral Dissertation, Kenyatta University). https://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/server/api/core/bitstreams/51715194-b99d-4dee-a79e-0808364ef1c3/content
Kimokoti, S. N. (2022). Cattle Rustling In Kenya: a review of the root causes, emerging trajectories and mitigation strategies. EPRA International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research (IJMR), 8(4), 119-124.
KIPPRA (2023). Enhancing Peace and Security in Kenya through Mitigation of Climate Change. https://kippra.or.ke/enhancing-peace-and-security-in-kenya-through-mitigation-of-climate-change/
KIPRRA (2012). Vision 2030 Development Strategy for Northern Kenya and other Arid Lands. Government of the Republic of Kenya. Government of the Republic of Kenya
Kirui, L. K., Jensen, N. D., Obare, G. A., Kariuki, I. M., Chelanga, P. K., & Ikegami, M. (2022). Pastoral livelihood pathways transitions in northern Kenya: The process and impact of drought. Pastoralism, 12(1), 23. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13570-022-00240-w
Koske, J. C. (2014). Vulnerability to climate change and conflict, its impact on livelihoods and the enjoyment of human rights: case study: Pastoral communities in Northern Kenya (Turkana, Pokot and Samburu Districts) (Master's thesis, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås). https://nmbu.brage.unit.no/nmbu-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/225296/koske_master2014.pdf?sequence=4
Kumssa, A., Jones, J. F., & Herbert Williams, J. (2009). Conflict and human security in the North Rift and North Eastern Kenya. International Journal of social economics, 36(10), 1008-1020. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/03068290910984786/full/html
Leming’ani, C. R. (2017). Resource based conflicts between white settlers and Pastoralists in the horn of Africa: A case study of Laikipia County in Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11295/102159/Final%20TO%20BE%20%20Printed.....Repaired.pdf?sequence=4
Leshan, M. T., & Standslause, O. E. (2013). Adaptation to the harsh conditions of the arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya: Is Pastoralism the best livelihood option. Asian J. Appl. Sci, 2(4), 22-29. http://www.ajsc.leena-luna.co.jp/AJSCPDFs/Vol.2(4)/AJSC2013(2.4-03).pdf
Mamo, I. (2018). Climate Variability And Cattle Rustling Amongst Pastoralist Communities In The Horn Of Africa: A Case Study Of Marsabit County In Northern Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/105700
Marete, J. G. (2018). The Effects of Pastoral Conflicts on Secondary Education in Kenya: a Case Study of East Pokot (Doctoral dissertation, university of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/104719
Mburu, W. N. (2018). An Analysis of the Protracted Nature of Pastoral Conflicts in East Africa: a Case Study of Northern Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/105775
Mkutu, K. (2001). Pastoralism and conflict in the Horn of Africa (pp. 45-pp). London: Saferworld. Organisation. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/124889/WebLaikipia.pdf
Mohamed, B. (2018). An analysis of local perceptions of the role of drought in exacerbating contemporary pastoral conflict in northern Kenya: a case study of Marsabit County. https://open.uct.ac.za/items/5c9a70c8-5ea7-44ec-a3af-2502f6fe6c3a
Musau, D. M., Ichani, F. X., & Mulu, F. (2023). Assessment of Banditry, Cattle Rustling and Insecurity Nexus in North West Kenya. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 7(4), 132-148. https://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/server/api/core/bitstreams/77b6b435-9148-416d-b918-f97442755297/content
Mutuku, M. (2017). The Inter-ethnic Conflict Management in the Horn of Africa: the Case Study of the Borana and Rendile of Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/102197
Mwanyumba, P. M. (2014). Pastoralist livelihoods, livestock herd dynamics and trade in Garissa County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/75465
Mwenda, I. M. (2021). Influence of small arms and light weapons proliferation control on human security among the Rendille community of Marsabit county, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation). http://ir-library.mmarau.ac.ke:8080/handle/123456789/12358
Ngugi, S. K. (2020). An Assessment Of The Effectiveness Of Adoption Of Alternative Livelihood Strategies On Socio-Economic Wellbeing Of Pastoral Communities In Kajiado County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/154323
Njenga, M. K., Ogolla, E., Thumbi, S. M., Ngere, I., Omulo, S., Muturi, M., ... & Osoro, E. M. (2020). Comparison of knowledge, attitude, and practices of animal and human brucellosis between nomadic pastoralists and non-pastoralists in Kenya. BMC public health, 20, 1-10. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12889-020-8362-0
Njiru, B. N. (2012). Climate change, resource competition, and conflict amongst pastoral communities in Kenya. In Climate change, human security and violent conflict: Challenges for societal stability (pp. 513-527). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-28626-1_24
OCHA, (2022). Drought situation in the Kenya ASAL areas now at crisis level. https://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/drought-situation-kenya-asal-areas-now-crisis-level
Ogeto, P. M. (2023). Cattle Rustling and Banditry in the Rift Valley: Is It Culture or Food Security and Climate Change Adoptability?. Laikipia University Journal Of Social Sciences, Education And Humanities, 1(1). http://41.89.103.51/index.php/jsseh/article/view/28
Onyango K. O. (2021). Heavy siltation cuts fish stocks in Lake Turkana. Business Daily .https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/data-hub/heavy-siltation-cuts-fish-stocks-lake-turkana-3574846
Opiyo, F., Wasonga, O., Nyangito, M., Schilling, J., & Munang, R. (2015). Drought adaptation and coping strategies among the Turkana pastoralists of northern Kenya. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 6, 295-309. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13753-015-0063-4
Osamba, J. O. (2000). The sociology of insecurity: cattle rustling and banditry in North-Western Kenya. African Journal on Conflict Resolution, 1(2), 11-37. https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC16233
Ouda, J. O. (2017). Climate Change, Resource Scarcity And Violent Conflict In The Horn Of Africa A Case Study Of Turkana County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/101983
Rabi’u, U., & Muhammad, H. H. (2022). An Assessment Of The Causes And Effects Of Cattle Rustling And Banditry In Zamfara State, North-Western Nigeria. Zamfara Journal of Politics and Development, 3(3), 14-14.
Ruto, S. J., Ongwenyi, Z. N., & Mugo, J. K. (2010). Educational marginalisation in northern Kenya. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report. https://www.dlci-hoa.org/assets/upload/education-documents/20200804021314369.pdf
Said, F. I. (2020). Effectiveness Of Cattle Rustling Mitigation Strategies Among Pastoral Communities: A Case Of Loima Sub County, Turkana County (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/154080
Schilling, J., & Werland, L. (2023). Facing old and new risks in arid environments: The case of pastoral communities in Northern Kenya. PLOS Climate, 2(7), e0000251. https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000251
Sharamo, R. (2014). The politics of pastoral violence: a case study of Isiolo County, northern Kenya. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a089c4ed915d3cfd000408/FAC_Working_Paper_095.pdf
Sitima, A. M. (2015). Disarming belligerent communities in Africa: a case study of disarmament efforts in Samburu and Baringo communities of Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/94655
Sobania, N. (2019). Pastoralist migration and colonial policy: A case study from northern Kenya. In The Ecology of Survival (pp. 219-239). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429310249-11/pastoralist-migration-colonial-policy-case-study-northern-kenya-neal-sobania
Thendiu, I. N. (2009). The role of Livestock marketing in improving the pastoralists' livelihoods through income generation: the case of the pastoralist communities of Garissa District, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi, Kenya). https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/5163
Volpato, G., & King, E. G. (2019). From cattle to camels: trajectories of livelihood adaptation and social-ecological resilience in a Kenyan pastoralist community. Regional Environmental Change, 19, 849-865. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10113-018-1438-z
Wafula, W. M., Wasonga, O. V., Koech, O. K., & Kibet, S. (2022). Factors influencing migration and settlement of pastoralists in Nairobi City, Kenya. Pastoralism, 12, 1-14. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13570-021-00204-6
Waikenda, J. W. (2017). The concept of environmentally-induced conflict: A case study of northern Kenya, 1963-2012. International Academic Journal of Arts and Humanities, 1(1), 159-250. http://www.iajournals.org/articles/iajah_v1_i1_159_250.pdf
Wanjara, A. O., & Ogembo, P. O. (2023). Impact of Climate Change on Health and Livelihoods of Pastoral Communities in Kenya: A Case of North Eastern Region. Indonesian Journal of Social and Environmental Issues (IJSEI), 4(3), 299-315. https://www.ojs.literacyinstitute.org/index.php/ijsei/article/view/1078
Watete, P. W., Makau, W. K., Njoka, J. T., MacOpiyo, L. A., & Wasonga, O. V. (2016). Moving in and out of poverty: a case of the Somali and Turkana of Northern Kenya. Nomadic Peoples, 20(1), 123-140. https://doi.org/10.3197/np.2016.200108
Witsenburg, K. M., & Adano, W. R. (2014). Of rain and raids: Violent livestock raiding in northern Kenya. In A Micro-Sociology of Violence (pp. 118-142). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315872179-7/rain-raids-karen-witsenburg-wario-adano
Article Sidebar
Published
Apr 4, 2025
Article Details
How to Cite
Chirchir , E. (2025). Climate Change Fueling Conflicts and Banditry in Northen Kenya: Can Blue Economy Concept be a remedy?. Journal of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems, 3(1), 31–44. https://doi.org/10.69897/jatems.v3i1.199
Issue
Section
Review Articles
Author Biography
Elizabeth Chirchir , School of Pure and Applied Sciences, Bomet university College, P.O Box 701-20400, Bomet, Kenya
School of Pure and Applied Sciences, Bomet university College, P.O Box 701-20400, Bomet, Kenya