The Endemic Threat of Aflatoxins in Kenya: A Review of Prevalence, Causative Factors, Health Impacts and Integrated Mitigation Strategies
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Keywords
Résumé
Aflatoxin is endemic in Kenya and remains a persistent public health and food security threat in Kenya, especially in maize- and groundnut-based diets. The 2004 outbreak of acute aflatoxicosis in the country was one of the unprecedented epidemics of human aflatoxin poisoning recorded in mycotoxin history. This review examines the existing knowledge on the prevalence, causative factors, health and economic impacts, and current mitigation strategies of aflatoxin contamination across various food and feed value chains in the country. The review draws on peer-reviewed scientific studies, national surveillance reports, and institutional publications from 2000 to 2024. Databases such as PubMed, Scopus, FAO AGRIS, and Google Scholar were searched. Findings show aflatoxin B1 is the most common and toxic variant, often exceeding regulatory limits set by KEBS and Codex Alimentarius. Hotspot regions particularly Makueni, Kitui, Machakos, Meru, and parts of Western Kenya record frequent contamination due to climatic factors, poor postharvest handling, low awareness, and limited enforcement of food safety standards. Health impacts include acute poisoning, hepatocellular carcinoma, growth impairment in children, and immune suppression. Biochemical mechanisms involve liver enzyme-mediated transformation of aflatoxin B1 into reactive epoxides that bind to DNA, triggering mutations. Mitigation efforts such as biocontrol using Aflasafe KE01, hermetic storage technologies, aflatoxin binders in livestock feed, public awareness campaigns, and KEBS regulation have shown promise but remain underutilized or poorly scaled. Community awareness remains low, and informal markets continue to circulate contaminated food. The review concludes that while scientific and technical interventions exist, their limited adoption, weak enforcement, and fragmented implementation reduce impact. It recommends stronger integration of surveillance data into policymaking, increased farmer training, targeted subsidies for safe storage technologies, routine aflatoxin testing in informal markets and coordinated inter-agency action. Aligning food safety policies with climate resilience strategies is also essential to reduce future risk.
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Chemining'wa, G. N. (2007). Incidence of mycotoxin-producing fungi and aflatoxins in maize, soils and mill dust samples from Machakos, Eastern Kenya [Master's thesis]. University of Nairobi.
Cherotich, C., Okoth, M. W., Abong’ GO, Kariuki, S. W., & Omuse, E. R. (2025). Aflatoxin prevalence and association with maize grain physical and nutritional qualities in the informal markets in Meru County, Kenya. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 25(2), 25520-25537. https://ajfand.net/Volume25/No2/Cherotich25520.pdf
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FAO. (2012). Community knowledge and awareness of aflatoxin in dietary staples in rural Busia county, Kenya: A mixed methods study. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354871765_Community_knowledge_and_awareness_of_aflatoxin_in_dietary_staples_in_rural_Busia_county_Kenya_A_mixed_methods_study
Ferreira, A. D. S., et al. (2019). Epigenetic alterations caused by aflatoxin B1: a public health risk in the induction of hepatocellular carcinoma. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B, 22(1), 1–16. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30304666/
Fouad, A. M., Ruan, D., El-Senousey, H. K., Chen, W., Jiang, S., & Zheng, C. (2019). Harmful effects and control strategies of aflatoxin b1 produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus strains on poultry. Toxins, 11(3), 176. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11030176
Gachara, G., Suleiman, R., El Kadili, S., Ait Barka, E., Kilima, B., & Lahlali, R. (2022). Drivers of Post-Harvest Aflatoxin Contamination: Evidence Gathered from Knowledge Disparities and Field Surveys of Maize Farmers in the Rift Valley Region of Kenya. Toxins, 14(9), 629. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9500662/
Gachara, G., Suleiman, R., El Kadili, S., Ait Barka, E., Kilima, B., & Lahlali, R. (2022). Post-harvest aflatoxin knowledge, perceptions and mitigation practices among smallholder maize farmers in the Rift Valley region of Kenya. Heliyon, 8(7), e09867. https://www.cell.com/heliyon/fulltext/S2405-8440(22)01550-X
Gong, Y. Y., et al. (2004). Postweaning exposure to aflatoxin results in impaired child growth: a longitudinal study in Benin, West Africa. Environmental Health Perspectives, 112(13), 1334–1338. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15345349/
Gong, Y. Y., Wilson, S., Mwatha, J. K., Kamau, E., Nduhiu, J., & Wild, C. P. (2012). Aflatoxin exposure is associated with hepatomegaly in Kenyan schoolchildren. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 9(12), 4333–4345. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/9/12/4333
Hoffmann, V., Jones, K., & Leroy, J. L. (2018). The impact of reducing dietary aflatoxin exposure on child linear growth: a cluster randomised controlled trial in Kenya. BMJ Global Health, 3(6), e000983. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2018-000983
IARC. (1993). Some Naturally Occurring Substances: Food Items and Constituents, Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines and Mycotoxins. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Vol. 56. NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK350562/
IARC. (2012). Aflatoxin B1 and M1: Biological Properties and Their Involvement in Cancer Development. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 9(12), 4058–4072. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6024316/
Jacob, N. M., Madadi, V. O., Wandiga, S. O., & Kariuki, D. K. (2022). Occurrence and Prevalence of Aflatoxins Contamination in Stored Maize Grains from the Rift Valley, Kenya. African Journal of Plant Science, 16(12), 343-352. https://uonjournals.uonbi.ac.ke/ojs/index.php/ajps/article/download/1863/1519/
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Aug 1, 2025
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Goren , F. C., Osano , O., & Khazenzi, J. (2025). The Endemic Threat of Aflatoxins in Kenya: A Review of Prevalence, Causative Factors, Health Impacts and Integrated Mitigation Strategies. Journal of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems, 3(2), 65–87. https://doi.org/10.69897/jatems.v3i2.253
Numéro
Rubrique
Review Articles
Bibliographies de l'auteur
Florence Chelimo Goren , Department of Environmental Sciences, School of Environmental Studies and Natural Resource Management, University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125, Eldoret, Kenya
Department of Environmental Sciences,
School of Environmental Studies and Natural Resource Management,
University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125, Eldoret, Kenya
Odipo Osano , Department of Environmental Sciences, School of Environmental Studies and Natural Resource Management, University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125, Eldoret, Kenya
Department of Environmental Sciences,
School of Environmental Studies and Natural Resource Management,
University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125, Eldoret, Kenya
Judith Khazenzi, Department of Environmental Sciences, School of Environmental Studies and Natural Resource Management, University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125, Eldoret, Kenya
Department of Environmental Sciences,
School of Environmental Studies and Natural Resource Management,
University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125, Eldoret, Kenya