Adaptation Measures Adopted by Pastoralist Livestock Farmers in Kenya in Response to Climate Change
Main Article Content
Keywords
Livestock farming, climate change, adaptation, mitigation, pastoralist communities
Abstract
Pastoralist communities in Kenya, such as the Maasai, Samburu, Turkana and Borana, predominantly inhabit the arid and semi-arid regions of the country. These communities have traditionally relied on livestock for their livelihoods, with cattle, goats, and sheep forming the backbone of their economic and cultural practices. However, in recent years, this adaptive animal production system has faced growing external threats due to issues such as climate change, political instability, agricultural expansion and rural banditry that have transformed the rangelands in which they operate. In response to climate change challenges, Kenyan pastoralist livestock farmers have devised and implemented a variety of adaptation measures. Hence, identifying effective adaptation measures can facilitate the replication and scaling of successful strategies across different regions and communities. The review entailed a systematic search of relevant scholarly articles published between 2013 and 2023 using search engines Scopus, Web of Science, World Health Organization, the Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI), the Scientific Electronic Library Online (ScIELO) as well as Google Scholar and structured Google. The findings indicated that diversifying livestock breeds to more resilient species, adopting rotational grazing practices to prevent pasture depletion, destocking, forming or joining cooperative societies slathering of weak animals and developing water conservation methods such as rainwater harvesting and construction of water pans are some of the adaptation measures adopted by pastrolist communities in Kenya. The study recommends that there need for government to increase support for the implementation and scaling-up of rotational grazing and feed conservation techniques as well as promote herd diversification by supporting the breeding and acquisition of drought-resistant livestock species, thereby reducing vulnerability to climatic shocks.
References
ACAPS (2022). Impact of drought: Turkana and Marsabit counties. https://www.acaps.org/fileadmin/Data_Product/Main_media/20221207_acaps_thematic_report_horn_of_africa_impact_of_drought_in_kenya_0.pdf
ACTED (May, 2024). Cash transfers: restoring flood affected communities’ livelihoods. https://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/cash-transfers-restoring-flood-affected-communities-livelihoods
Akov, E. T., & Asua, S. (2021). Farmers–pastoralist conflicts in the Sahel region of West Africa: The scarcity-migration perspective. In Transborder Pastoral Nomadism and Human Security in Africa (pp. 28-40). Routledge India.
Alemu, M. (2018). Violence, insecurity and marginality in pastoralist spaces: the Horn of Africa and the Sahel regions. The Strategic Review for Southern Africa, 40(2).
Amwata, D. A., & Nyariki, D. M. (2021). Climate variability, land-use, pastoral and agropastoral livelihoods in arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya.
ASAL Humanitarian Network (2022). Drought situation in the Kenya ASAL areas now at crisis level. https://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/drought-situation-kenya-asal-areas-now-crisis-level
Basupi, L. V. (2018). Pastoralism and land tenure transformation: Policy implications and livelihoods adaptations in Botswana (Doctoral dissertation, University of Leeds).
Basupi, L. V., Quinn, C. H., & Dougill, A. J. (2017). Pastoralism and land tenure transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa: conflicting policies and priorities in Ngamiland, Botswana. Land, 6(4), 89.
Blocher, J. (2018). Fleeing from arid lands: Pastoralism in the context of climate change. In Routledge Handbook of Environmental Displacement and Migration (pp. 188-204). Routledge.
Bobadoye, A. O., Ogara, W. O., Ouma, G. O., & Onono, J. O. (2016). Assessing climate change adaptation strategies among rural Maasai pastoralist in Kenya.
Brottem, L., & McDonnell, A. (2020). Pastoralism and Conflict.
Chelang’a, J. K., & Chesire, M. (2020). Analysis of conflict resolution strategies among Pastoralist Communities of Kenya. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(4), 4-21.
Chufe, J. C., Oindo, B. O., & Abuom, P. O. (2019). Assessment of Magnitudes of Vulnerabilities to Drought in Pastoral Production System in Marsabit, Northern Kenya. The International Journal of Science & Technoledge.
Coppock, D. L. (1994). The Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of Pastoral Research, Development and Change, 1980-91. ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD).
Crane, T., B. Habermann, E. Marty, C. Arndt, S. Leitner, T. Worku and L. Gichuki. (2022). Climate change adaptation and mitigation in extensive livestock systems in East Africa. Findings from the Programme for Climate-Smart Livestock Systems. GIZ, Eschborn
Fenta, M. M. (2017). Understanding resilience pathways to climate change in a changing rangeland environment amongst pastoral societies of Afar Region, Ethiopia (Doctoral dissertation, University of the Free State).
Flintan, F. E., Robinson, L. W., & Allen, M. (2021). A review of tenure and governance in the pastoral lands of East and West Africa.
Galaty, J. (2021). Pastoralism in Eastern Africa. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History.
Githae, E. W., & Mutiga, I. M. (2021). Ecological restoration of pastoral landscapes in the drylands of East Africa.
Hauck, S., & Rubenstein, D. I. (2017). Pastoralist societies in flux: A conceptual framework analysis of herding and land use among the Mukugodo Maasai of Kenya. Pastoralism, 7(1), 18.
Higazi, A. (2020). Pastoralism and Islamic practice in Fulɓe communities of northern Nigeria and Niger. Transnational Islam, 117.
Iyodu, B. (2009). Culture, participation and the right to development: the pastoralist dilemma–the Karamoja case study (Master's thesis, University of Pretoria (South Africa)).
Kimaru, J., Mutembei, H., & Muthee, J. K. (2021). Analysis of Hay Demand from Pastoralism Systems on Viability of Hay Production as a Climate Adaptation Strategy in Kajiado County, Kenya. Agricultural Sciences, 12(10), 1089-1102.
Kirui L., Karugia J., Gathogo V., & Wane A. (2022). Economic Benefits of Pastoralism. https://cemiride.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Policy-Brief-Economic-benefits-of-pastoralism-Print.pdf
Korir, J. (2020). Climate change adaptation strategies adopted for sustainable livelihoods by the Pastoral Community in Narok County. Africa Environmental Review Journal, 4(1), 54-73.
Laibuni, N. (2020). Discussion Paper No. 248 of 2020 on Implications of Drought and Floods on Household Food and Nutrition Security in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya.
Lelenguyah, G. L. (2023). Analysis of Nexus Between Climate Variability, Herd Mobility and Livestock Disease Incidences in the Rangelands of Northern Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Lind, J., Sabates-Wheeler, R., Caravani, M., Kuol, L. B. D., & Nightingale, D. M. (2020). Newly evolving pastoral and post-pastoral rangelands of Eastern Africa. Pastoralism, 10, 1-14.
Luizza, M. (2017). Transhumant Pastoralism in Central Africa: Emerging Impacts on Conservation and Security. Unpublished report. US Fish & Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, USA.
Magal, R. P. (2016). Risk Assessment Of The Coping And Adaptation Mechanisms For Pastoralists To Climate Change And Variability: A Case Study Of Kongelai Ward, West Pokot County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Manzano, P., Burgas, D., Cadahía, L., Eronen, J. T., Fernández-Llamazares, Á., Bencherif, S., ... & Stenseth, N. C. (2021). Toward a holistic understanding of pastoralism. One Earth, 4(5), 651-665.
Marty, E., Bullock, R., Cashmore, M., Crane, T., & Eriksen, S. (2023). Adapting to climate change among transitioning Maasai pastoralists in southern Kenya: an intersectional analysis of differentiated abilities to benefit from diversification processes. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 50(1), 136-161.
McCormack J., (October 13, 2022). Mitigating the Impact of Drought on Pastoral Communities in Kenya’s Arid and Semi-arid Lands (ASAL). https://agrilinks.org/post/mitigating-impact-drought-pastoral-communities-kenyas-arid-and-semi-arid-lands-asal
McPeak, J., & Little, P. D. (2018). Pastoralist Livestock Marketing Behavior in Northern Kenya and Southern Ethiopia: An Analysis of Constraints Limiting Off-Take Rates. African Studies Review.
Mekuyie, M., & Mulu, D. (2021). Perception of impacts of climate variability on pastoralists and their adaptation/coping strategies in fentale district of Oromia region, Ethiopia. Environmental Systems Research, 10(1), 4.
Mganga, K. Z. (2022). Agricultural Land Degradation in Kenya. In Impact of Agriculture on Soil Degradation I: Perspectives from Africa, Asia, America and Oceania (pp. 273-300). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Mngoli, M. (2014). Land use change, water availability and adaptation strategies in changing and variable climate in Kajiado north, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Mohamed, A. A. (2019). Pastoralism and development policy in Ethiopia: a review study. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal): Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(4), 01-11.
Mude, A. G., Ouma, R., Steeg, J. V. D., Kaiuki, J., Opiyo, D., & Tipilda, A. (2007). Kenya adaptation to climate change in the arid lands: Anticipating, adapting to and coping with climate risks in Kenya-Operational recommendations for KACCAL. ILRI Research Report.
Muhati, G. L. (2022). Ecosystem services of Hurri hills, a montane woodland ecosystem in the arid lands of northern Kenya. Global Ecology and Conservation, 33, e01951.
Mutekanga, D. R., Songorwa, A. N., & Kicheleri, R. P. (2013). Review of the decision to evict pastoral communities from usangu basin of southern Tanzania using the trade-off approach.
Ndiritu, S. W. (2021). Drought responses and adaptation strategies to climate change by pastoralists in the semi-arid area, Laikipia County, Kenya. Mitigation and adaptation strategies for Global Change, 26, 1-18.
Ng’ang’a, T. W., Coulibaly, J. Y., Crane, T. A., Gachene, C. K., & Kironchi, G. (2020). Propensity to adapt to climate change: Insights from pastoralist and agro-pastoralist households of Laikipia County, Kenya. Climatic change, 161, 393-413.
Njiru, E. (2012). Climate Change, Resource Competition, and Conflict amongst Pastoral Communities in Kenya. In J. Scheffran, M. Brzoska, H. G. Brauch, P. M. Link, & J. Schilling (Eds.), Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict: Challenges for Societal Stability (pp. 513-527). Springer.
Njoka, J. T., Yanda, P., Maganga, F., Liwenga, E., Kateka, A., Henku, A., ... & Bavo, C. (2016). Kenya: Country situation
assessment. Pathways to Resilience in Semi-arid Economies (PRISE).
Nyariki, D. M., & Amwata, D. A. (2019). The value of pastoralism in Kenya: Application of total economic value approach. Pastoralism, 9(1), 1-13.
Obi A. (2023). The testing climate journey facing Kenya’s pastoralists. https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news-feature/2023/12/08/climate-change-drought-floods-kenya-pastoralists
OCHA (2022). Drought situation in the Kenya ASAL areas now at crisis level. https://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/drought-situation-kenya-asal-areas-now-crisis-level
Ogalo, A. J. (2017). A History of Cross-Border Resource Conflict Persistence Between the Pokot and Karamojong Since 1850 (Doctoral dissertation, Maseno University).
Omolo, N., & Mafongoya, P. L. (2019). Gender, social capital and adaptive capacity to climate variability: A case of pastoralists in arid and semi-arid regions in Kenya. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 11(5), 744-758.
Opiyo, F., Wasonga, O., Nyangito, M., Schilling, J., & Munang, R. (2015). Drought adaptation and coping strategies among the Turkana pastoralists of northern Kenya. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 6, 295-309.
Ouma, E. (2021). Water security risks and coping mechanisms among sedentarized pastoralists in Isiolo County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Ouma, J. O. (2015). Assessing the potential effects of climate variability and change on livestock in the arid lands of Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Pas Schrijver, A. (2019). Pastoralists, Mobility and Conservation: Shifting rules of access and control of grazing resources in Kenya's northern drylands (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Human Geography, Stockholm University).
Pas, A. (2018). Governing grazing and mobility in the Samburu lowlands, Kenya. Land, 7(2), 41.
Pickering, T. (2021). Drought and Samburu Pastoralism: A Collaborative Effort to Examine the Causes, Adaptation Process, and Grazing Innovations in Northern Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University).
Quandt, A., & Kimathi, Y. A. (2017). Perceptions of the effects of floods and droughts on livelihoods: lessons from arid Kenya. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 9(03), 337-351.
Rioba B., (2019). Dried-up pastures push Maasai farmers in Kenya to mix cattle with crops. https://gca.org/dried-up-pastures-push-maasai-farmers-in-kenya-to-mix-cattle-with-crops/
Said, M. Y., Bedelian, C., Moiko, S., Muhwanga, J., Atela, J., & Abuya, R. (2019). Projected climate change and its potential impact on cattle in Kajiado county: PRISE Research Brief. Nairobi: Kenya Markets Trust, 3.
Sala, S. M. (2019). An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Participation of Pastoralists in Commercial Fodder Value Chain for Livelihood Resilience in Isiolo County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, UoN).
Salzman, P. C. (2018). Pastoralists: Equality, hierarchy, and the state. Routledge.
Schareika, N., Brown, C., & Moritz, M. (2021). Critical transitions from pastoralism to ranching in Central Africa. Current Anthropology, 62(1), 53-76.
Schilling, J., & Werland, L. (2023). Facing old and new risks in arid environments: The case of pastoral communities in Northern Kenya. PLOS Climate, 2(7), e0000251.
Syomiti, M., Maranga, E., Obwoyere, G., Getachew, G., Dana, H., Beatrice, M., ... & Duyu, J. (2015). The adaptive and coping strategies of pastoralists to climate change in Baringo, Laikipia and Nyeri Counties of Kenya. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 27(12), 1-7.
Tenaw, Z. T. (2021). Climate change, pastoral livelihood vulnerability and adaptation strategies: a case study of sitti zone, Somali regional state in Eastern Ethiopia. SIGNATURE.
Tiruneh, S., & Tegene, F. (2018). Impacts of climate change on Livestock production and productivity and different adaptation strategies in Ethiopia. Journal of Applied and Advanced Research, 3(3), 52-58.
United Nations Africa Renewal (January, 2023). Climate change destroys the livelihoods of Kenyan pastoralists https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/january-2023/climate-change-destroys-livelihoods-kenyan-pastoralists.
Ventresca Miller, A. R., Spengler, R., Haruda, A., Miller, B., Wilkin, S., Robinson, S., ... & Boivin, N. (2020). Ecosystem engineering among ancient pastoralists in northern Central Asia. Frontiers in Earth Science, 8, 168.
Wanjara, A. O., & Ogembo, P. O. (2023). Impact of Climate Change on Health and Livelihoods of Pastoral Communities in Kenya: A Case of North Eastern Region. Indonesian Journal of Social and Environmental Issues (IJSEI), 4(3), 299-315.
Wild, H., Glowacki, L., Maples, S., Mejía-Guevara, I., Krystosik, A., Bonds, M. H., ... & Barry, M. (2019). Making pastoralists count: geospatial methods for the health surveillance of nomadic populations. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 101(3), 661.
Zhang, Q., Cui, F., Dai, L., Feng, B., Lu, Y., & Tang, H. (2019). Pastoralists’ perception of and adaptation strategies for climate change: associations with observed climate variability. Natural Hazards, 96, 1387-1412.
ACTED (May, 2024). Cash transfers: restoring flood affected communities’ livelihoods. https://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/cash-transfers-restoring-flood-affected-communities-livelihoods
Akov, E. T., & Asua, S. (2021). Farmers–pastoralist conflicts in the Sahel region of West Africa: The scarcity-migration perspective. In Transborder Pastoral Nomadism and Human Security in Africa (pp. 28-40). Routledge India.
Alemu, M. (2018). Violence, insecurity and marginality in pastoralist spaces: the Horn of Africa and the Sahel regions. The Strategic Review for Southern Africa, 40(2).
Amwata, D. A., & Nyariki, D. M. (2021). Climate variability, land-use, pastoral and agropastoral livelihoods in arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya.
ASAL Humanitarian Network (2022). Drought situation in the Kenya ASAL areas now at crisis level. https://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/drought-situation-kenya-asal-areas-now-crisis-level
Basupi, L. V. (2018). Pastoralism and land tenure transformation: Policy implications and livelihoods adaptations in Botswana (Doctoral dissertation, University of Leeds).
Basupi, L. V., Quinn, C. H., & Dougill, A. J. (2017). Pastoralism and land tenure transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa: conflicting policies and priorities in Ngamiland, Botswana. Land, 6(4), 89.
Blocher, J. (2018). Fleeing from arid lands: Pastoralism in the context of climate change. In Routledge Handbook of Environmental Displacement and Migration (pp. 188-204). Routledge.
Bobadoye, A. O., Ogara, W. O., Ouma, G. O., & Onono, J. O. (2016). Assessing climate change adaptation strategies among rural Maasai pastoralist in Kenya.
Brottem, L., & McDonnell, A. (2020). Pastoralism and Conflict.
Chelang’a, J. K., & Chesire, M. (2020). Analysis of conflict resolution strategies among Pastoralist Communities of Kenya. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(4), 4-21.
Chufe, J. C., Oindo, B. O., & Abuom, P. O. (2019). Assessment of Magnitudes of Vulnerabilities to Drought in Pastoral Production System in Marsabit, Northern Kenya. The International Journal of Science & Technoledge.
Coppock, D. L. (1994). The Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia: Synthesis of Pastoral Research, Development and Change, 1980-91. ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD).
Crane, T., B. Habermann, E. Marty, C. Arndt, S. Leitner, T. Worku and L. Gichuki. (2022). Climate change adaptation and mitigation in extensive livestock systems in East Africa. Findings from the Programme for Climate-Smart Livestock Systems. GIZ, Eschborn
Fenta, M. M. (2017). Understanding resilience pathways to climate change in a changing rangeland environment amongst pastoral societies of Afar Region, Ethiopia (Doctoral dissertation, University of the Free State).
Flintan, F. E., Robinson, L. W., & Allen, M. (2021). A review of tenure and governance in the pastoral lands of East and West Africa.
Galaty, J. (2021). Pastoralism in Eastern Africa. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History.
Githae, E. W., & Mutiga, I. M. (2021). Ecological restoration of pastoral landscapes in the drylands of East Africa.
Hauck, S., & Rubenstein, D. I. (2017). Pastoralist societies in flux: A conceptual framework analysis of herding and land use among the Mukugodo Maasai of Kenya. Pastoralism, 7(1), 18.
Higazi, A. (2020). Pastoralism and Islamic practice in Fulɓe communities of northern Nigeria and Niger. Transnational Islam, 117.
Iyodu, B. (2009). Culture, participation and the right to development: the pastoralist dilemma–the Karamoja case study (Master's thesis, University of Pretoria (South Africa)).
Kimaru, J., Mutembei, H., & Muthee, J. K. (2021). Analysis of Hay Demand from Pastoralism Systems on Viability of Hay Production as a Climate Adaptation Strategy in Kajiado County, Kenya. Agricultural Sciences, 12(10), 1089-1102.
Kirui L., Karugia J., Gathogo V., & Wane A. (2022). Economic Benefits of Pastoralism. https://cemiride.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Policy-Brief-Economic-benefits-of-pastoralism-Print.pdf
Korir, J. (2020). Climate change adaptation strategies adopted for sustainable livelihoods by the Pastoral Community in Narok County. Africa Environmental Review Journal, 4(1), 54-73.
Laibuni, N. (2020). Discussion Paper No. 248 of 2020 on Implications of Drought and Floods on Household Food and Nutrition Security in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya.
Lelenguyah, G. L. (2023). Analysis of Nexus Between Climate Variability, Herd Mobility and Livestock Disease Incidences in the Rangelands of Northern Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Lind, J., Sabates-Wheeler, R., Caravani, M., Kuol, L. B. D., & Nightingale, D. M. (2020). Newly evolving pastoral and post-pastoral rangelands of Eastern Africa. Pastoralism, 10, 1-14.
Luizza, M. (2017). Transhumant Pastoralism in Central Africa: Emerging Impacts on Conservation and Security. Unpublished report. US Fish & Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, USA.
Magal, R. P. (2016). Risk Assessment Of The Coping And Adaptation Mechanisms For Pastoralists To Climate Change And Variability: A Case Study Of Kongelai Ward, West Pokot County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Manzano, P., Burgas, D., Cadahía, L., Eronen, J. T., Fernández-Llamazares, Á., Bencherif, S., ... & Stenseth, N. C. (2021). Toward a holistic understanding of pastoralism. One Earth, 4(5), 651-665.
Marty, E., Bullock, R., Cashmore, M., Crane, T., & Eriksen, S. (2023). Adapting to climate change among transitioning Maasai pastoralists in southern Kenya: an intersectional analysis of differentiated abilities to benefit from diversification processes. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 50(1), 136-161.
McCormack J., (October 13, 2022). Mitigating the Impact of Drought on Pastoral Communities in Kenya’s Arid and Semi-arid Lands (ASAL). https://agrilinks.org/post/mitigating-impact-drought-pastoral-communities-kenyas-arid-and-semi-arid-lands-asal
McPeak, J., & Little, P. D. (2018). Pastoralist Livestock Marketing Behavior in Northern Kenya and Southern Ethiopia: An Analysis of Constraints Limiting Off-Take Rates. African Studies Review.
Mekuyie, M., & Mulu, D. (2021). Perception of impacts of climate variability on pastoralists and their adaptation/coping strategies in fentale district of Oromia region, Ethiopia. Environmental Systems Research, 10(1), 4.
Mganga, K. Z. (2022). Agricultural Land Degradation in Kenya. In Impact of Agriculture on Soil Degradation I: Perspectives from Africa, Asia, America and Oceania (pp. 273-300). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Mngoli, M. (2014). Land use change, water availability and adaptation strategies in changing and variable climate in Kajiado north, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Mohamed, A. A. (2019). Pastoralism and development policy in Ethiopia: a review study. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal): Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(4), 01-11.
Mude, A. G., Ouma, R., Steeg, J. V. D., Kaiuki, J., Opiyo, D., & Tipilda, A. (2007). Kenya adaptation to climate change in the arid lands: Anticipating, adapting to and coping with climate risks in Kenya-Operational recommendations for KACCAL. ILRI Research Report.
Muhati, G. L. (2022). Ecosystem services of Hurri hills, a montane woodland ecosystem in the arid lands of northern Kenya. Global Ecology and Conservation, 33, e01951.
Mutekanga, D. R., Songorwa, A. N., & Kicheleri, R. P. (2013). Review of the decision to evict pastoral communities from usangu basin of southern Tanzania using the trade-off approach.
Ndiritu, S. W. (2021). Drought responses and adaptation strategies to climate change by pastoralists in the semi-arid area, Laikipia County, Kenya. Mitigation and adaptation strategies for Global Change, 26, 1-18.
Ng’ang’a, T. W., Coulibaly, J. Y., Crane, T. A., Gachene, C. K., & Kironchi, G. (2020). Propensity to adapt to climate change: Insights from pastoralist and agro-pastoralist households of Laikipia County, Kenya. Climatic change, 161, 393-413.
Njiru, E. (2012). Climate Change, Resource Competition, and Conflict amongst Pastoral Communities in Kenya. In J. Scheffran, M. Brzoska, H. G. Brauch, P. M. Link, & J. Schilling (Eds.), Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict: Challenges for Societal Stability (pp. 513-527). Springer.
Njoka, J. T., Yanda, P., Maganga, F., Liwenga, E., Kateka, A., Henku, A., ... & Bavo, C. (2016). Kenya: Country situation
assessment. Pathways to Resilience in Semi-arid Economies (PRISE).
Nyariki, D. M., & Amwata, D. A. (2019). The value of pastoralism in Kenya: Application of total economic value approach. Pastoralism, 9(1), 1-13.
Obi A. (2023). The testing climate journey facing Kenya’s pastoralists. https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news-feature/2023/12/08/climate-change-drought-floods-kenya-pastoralists
OCHA (2022). Drought situation in the Kenya ASAL areas now at crisis level. https://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/drought-situation-kenya-asal-areas-now-crisis-level
Ogalo, A. J. (2017). A History of Cross-Border Resource Conflict Persistence Between the Pokot and Karamojong Since 1850 (Doctoral dissertation, Maseno University).
Omolo, N., & Mafongoya, P. L. (2019). Gender, social capital and adaptive capacity to climate variability: A case of pastoralists in arid and semi-arid regions in Kenya. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 11(5), 744-758.
Opiyo, F., Wasonga, O., Nyangito, M., Schilling, J., & Munang, R. (2015). Drought adaptation and coping strategies among the Turkana pastoralists of northern Kenya. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 6, 295-309.
Ouma, E. (2021). Water security risks and coping mechanisms among sedentarized pastoralists in Isiolo County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Ouma, J. O. (2015). Assessing the potential effects of climate variability and change on livestock in the arid lands of Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Pas Schrijver, A. (2019). Pastoralists, Mobility and Conservation: Shifting rules of access and control of grazing resources in Kenya's northern drylands (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Human Geography, Stockholm University).
Pas, A. (2018). Governing grazing and mobility in the Samburu lowlands, Kenya. Land, 7(2), 41.
Pickering, T. (2021). Drought and Samburu Pastoralism: A Collaborative Effort to Examine the Causes, Adaptation Process, and Grazing Innovations in Northern Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University).
Quandt, A., & Kimathi, Y. A. (2017). Perceptions of the effects of floods and droughts on livelihoods: lessons from arid Kenya. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 9(03), 337-351.
Rioba B., (2019). Dried-up pastures push Maasai farmers in Kenya to mix cattle with crops. https://gca.org/dried-up-pastures-push-maasai-farmers-in-kenya-to-mix-cattle-with-crops/
Said, M. Y., Bedelian, C., Moiko, S., Muhwanga, J., Atela, J., & Abuya, R. (2019). Projected climate change and its potential impact on cattle in Kajiado county: PRISE Research Brief. Nairobi: Kenya Markets Trust, 3.
Sala, S. M. (2019). An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Participation of Pastoralists in Commercial Fodder Value Chain for Livelihood Resilience in Isiolo County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, UoN).
Salzman, P. C. (2018). Pastoralists: Equality, hierarchy, and the state. Routledge.
Schareika, N., Brown, C., & Moritz, M. (2021). Critical transitions from pastoralism to ranching in Central Africa. Current Anthropology, 62(1), 53-76.
Schilling, J., & Werland, L. (2023). Facing old and new risks in arid environments: The case of pastoral communities in Northern Kenya. PLOS Climate, 2(7), e0000251.
Syomiti, M., Maranga, E., Obwoyere, G., Getachew, G., Dana, H., Beatrice, M., ... & Duyu, J. (2015). The adaptive and coping strategies of pastoralists to climate change in Baringo, Laikipia and Nyeri Counties of Kenya. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 27(12), 1-7.
Tenaw, Z. T. (2021). Climate change, pastoral livelihood vulnerability and adaptation strategies: a case study of sitti zone, Somali regional state in Eastern Ethiopia. SIGNATURE.
Tiruneh, S., & Tegene, F. (2018). Impacts of climate change on Livestock production and productivity and different adaptation strategies in Ethiopia. Journal of Applied and Advanced Research, 3(3), 52-58.
United Nations Africa Renewal (January, 2023). Climate change destroys the livelihoods of Kenyan pastoralists https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/january-2023/climate-change-destroys-livelihoods-kenyan-pastoralists.
Ventresca Miller, A. R., Spengler, R., Haruda, A., Miller, B., Wilkin, S., Robinson, S., ... & Boivin, N. (2020). Ecosystem engineering among ancient pastoralists in northern Central Asia. Frontiers in Earth Science, 8, 168.
Wanjara, A. O., & Ogembo, P. O. (2023). Impact of Climate Change on Health and Livelihoods of Pastoral Communities in Kenya: A Case of North Eastern Region. Indonesian Journal of Social and Environmental Issues (IJSEI), 4(3), 299-315.
Wild, H., Glowacki, L., Maples, S., Mejía-Guevara, I., Krystosik, A., Bonds, M. H., ... & Barry, M. (2019). Making pastoralists count: geospatial methods for the health surveillance of nomadic populations. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 101(3), 661.
Zhang, Q., Cui, F., Dai, L., Feng, B., Lu, Y., & Tang, H. (2019). Pastoralists’ perception of and adaptation strategies for climate change: associations with observed climate variability. Natural Hazards, 96, 1387-1412.
Article Sidebar
Published
May 5, 2024
Article Details
How to Cite
Yator , M. (2024). Adaptation Measures Adopted by Pastoralist Livestock Farmers in Kenya in Response to Climate Change. Journal of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems, 2(2), 22–36. https://doi.org/10.69897/jatems.v2i2.110
Issue
Section
Review Articles
Author Biography
Monica Yator , Department of Animal Science, School of Agriculture and Biotechnology, University of Eldoret, P.o. Box 1125, Eldoret, Kenya
Department of Animal Science, School of Agriculture and Biotechnology, University of Eldoret, Kenya