Review of Harmful Algal Blooms in the Kenyan Major Freshwater Lakes: Impacts on Local Community Livelihoods and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies
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Keywords
Résumé
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) have emerged as a major environmental and socio-economic challenge in Kenya’s freshwater ecosystems, particularly in lakes such as Victoria, Naivasha, and Baringo. These blooms, driven by nutrient enrichment, climate change, and land-use changes, threaten water quality, biodiversity, and the livelihoods of dependent communities. This review aims to synthesize existing literature on the causes, impacts, and mitigation of HABs in Kenya’s freshwater ecosystems, with a focus on their implications for community livelihoods and ecosystem sustainability. A systematic review approach was employed, drawing on peer-reviewed journal articles, government and NGO reports, and regional case studies published between 2003 and 2025. The analysis categorizes findings into four key themes: (1) Freshwater lakes affected by HABs in Kenya (2) Causes and contributing factors of HABs in the Kenyan Freshwater Lakes including nutrient enrichment and climate change; (3) ecological and socio-economic impacts, particularly on fisheries, aquaculture, and public health; and (4) mitigation and, management strategies, highlighting both policy frameworks and community-based interventions. The findings reveal that while Kenya has made strides in freshwater management, challenges persist due to inadequate monitoring, weak enforcement of water quality regulations, and limited community awareness. Sustainable solutions are critical for long-term management. Eco-friendly agricultural practices, constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment, and community-based monitoring programs offer promising approaches. Combining scientific research with traditional knowledge could enhance resilience and adaptive strategies. The review recommends improved policy coordination, investment in green technologies such as bioremediation, and enhanced public education to reduce nutrient loading. Overall, this paper underscores the urgent need for a multidisciplinary approach to address HABs in Kenya’s freshwater ecosystems. By linking ecological health to community well-being, the review contributes to the broader discourse on sustainable freshwater resource management in sub-Saharan Africa.
Références
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Feng, L., Wang, Y., Hou, X., Qin, B., Kutser, T., Qu, F., ... & Zheng, C. (2024). Harmful algal blooms in inland waters. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 5(9), 631-644. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-024-00578-2
Fiorella, K. J., Milner, E. M., Salmen, C. R., Hickey, M. D., Omollo, D. O., Odhiambo, A., ... & Brashares, J. S. (2017). Human health alters the sustainability of fishing practices in East Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(16), 4171-4176. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1613260114
Gobler, C. J., Doherty, O. M., Hattenrath-Lehmann, T. K., Griffith, A. W., Kang, Y., & Litaker, R. W. (2017). Ocean warming since 1982 has expanded the niche of toxic algal blooms in the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(19), 4975-4980. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1619575114
Gobler, C. J., Drinkwater, R. W., Anthony, A., Goleski, J. A., Famularo-Pecora, A. M. E., Wallace, M. K., ... & Hem, R. (2024). Sewage-and fertilizer-derived nutrients alter the intensity, diversity, and toxicity of harmful cyanobacterial blooms in eutrophic lakes. Frontiers in Microbiology, 15, 1464686. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1464686
Harper, D. M., Morrison, E. H., Macharia, M. M., Mavuti, K. M., & Upton, C. (2011). Lake Naivasha, Kenya: ecology, society and future. Freshwater Reviews, 4(2), 89-114. https://doi.org/10.1608/FRJ-4.2.149
Hart, L. N., Zepernick, B. N., Natwora, K. E., Brown, K. M., Obuya, J. A., Lomeo, D., ... & Dick, G. J. (2025). Metagenomics reveals spatial variation in cyanobacterial composition, function, and biosynthetic potential in the Winam Gulf, Lake Victoria, Kenya. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 91(2), e01507-24. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.01507-24
Huisman, J., Sharples, J., Stroom, J. M., Visser, P. M., Kardinaal, W. E. A., Verspagen, J. M., & Sommeijer, B. (2004). Changes in turbulent mixing shift competition for light between phytoplankton species. Ecology, 85(11), 2960-2970. https://doi.org/10.1890/03-0763
Igwaran, A., Kayode, A. J., Moloantoa, K. M., Khetsha, Z. P., & Unuofin, J. O. (2024). Cyanobacteria harmful algae blooms: causes, impacts, and risk management. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 235(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-023-06782-y
Jimoh, E., Vogler, C., & Waters, J. (2007). Perceived and real sources of pollution in Lake Naivasha. Tropical Biology Association, Nairobi. Kenya. https://tropical-biology.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Jimoh-Vogler-Waters_2007.pdf
Kimambo, O. N., Gumbo, J. R., & Chikoore, H. (2019). The occurrence of cyanobacteria blooms in freshwater ecosystems and their link with hydro-meteorological and environmental variations in Tanzania. Heliyon, 5(3). https://www.cell.com/heliyon/fulltext/S2405-8440(18)37509-1
Lan, J., Liu, P., Hu, X., & Zhu, S. (2024). Harmful algal blooms in eutrophic marine environments: causes, monitoring, and treatment. Water, 16(17), 2525. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172525
Madzivanzira, T. C., Mungenge, C. P., Dube, T., & Dalu, T. (2023). From benthic to floating: phytoplankton dynamics in African freshwater lakes and reservoirs. In Lakes of Africa (pp. 97-137). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-95527-0.00012-9
Mbonde, A. S., Sitoki, L., & Kurmayer, R. (2015). Phytoplankton composition and microcystin concentrations in open and closed bays of Lake Victoria, Tanzania. Aquatic ecosystem health & management, 18(2), 212-220. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28077928/
Mchau, G. J., Makule, E., Machunda, R., Gong, Y. Y., & Kimanya, M. (2019). Harmful algal bloom and associated health risks among users of Lake Victoria freshwater: Ukerewe Island, Tanzania. Journal of water and health, 17(5), 826-836. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2019.083
Mitra, A., & Flynn, K. J. (2006). Promotion of harmful algal blooms by zooplankton predatory activity. Biology letters, 2(2), 194-197. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2006.0447
Moore, S. K., Trainer, V. L., Mantua, N. J., Parker, M. S., Laws, E. A., Backer, L. C., & Fleming, L. E. (2008). Impacts of climate variability and future climate change on harmful algal blooms and human health. Environmental health, 7(Suppl 2), S4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-7-S2-S4
Musa, S., Aura, C. M., Tomasson, T., Sigurgeirsson, Ó., & Thorarensen, H. (2022). Impacts of Nile tilapia cage culture on water and bottom sediment quality: the ability of an eutrophic lake to absorb and dilute perturbations. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management, 27(4), e12413. https://doi.org/10.1111/lre.12413
Mutebi, A., Njuguna, H., & Wambua, S. (2022). Climate Variability and Its Effects on Freshwater Ecosystems in Kenya. Environmental Management Journal, 14(1), 45-62.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2025). Harmful Algal Bloom (Red Tide). Retrieved from https://www.noaa.gov/introduction-to-harmful-algal-blooms
Natural Resources Defense Council. (2019). Freshwater harmful algal blooms, 101. Retrieved from https://www.nrdc.org/stories/freshwater-harmful-algal-blooms-101
Ndlela, L. L., Oberholster, P. J., Van Wyk, J. H., & Cheng, P. H. (2016). An overview of cyanobacterial bloom occurrences and research in Africa over the last decade. Harmful Algae, 60, 11-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2016.10.001
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Dec 1, 2025
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Miniga, S. A., Ogello , E., Olwande , P., & Nyamweya, C. (2025). Review of Harmful Algal Blooms in the Kenyan Major Freshwater Lakes: Impacts on Local Community Livelihoods and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies. Journal of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems, 3(3), 79–101. https://doi.org/10.69897/jatems.v3i3.318
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Review Articles
Bibliographies de l'auteur
Sharon A. Miniga, Department of Animal and Fisheries Sciences, Maseno University, P.O. Box Private Bag, Maseno
Sharon Miniga is a freshwater ecologist and an environmental scientist with a Bachelor's degree in Environmental Science with IT and is pursuing a Master of Science in Fisheries and Aquaculture at Maseno University. Her work focuses on freshwater ecology, emphasizing the sustainable management of aquatic ecosystems. She has extensive experience in limnology, fisheries, and water quality research. She has contributed to multiple research initiatives on aquatic ecology, environmental monitoring, and sustainable fisheries management. Her research interests include algal bloom dynamics, climate change, water interactions, and evidence-based environmental policy for improved freshwater health. Through collaboration with various stakeholders, she addresses environmental issues such as water quality and biodiversity loss. An advocate for environmental education, Miniga strives to inspire global efforts for conservation and sustainable management of natural resources.
Erick Ogello , Department of Animal and Fisheries Sciences, Maseno University, P.O. Box Private Bag, Maseno
Department of Animal and Fisheries Sciences, Maseno University, P.O. Box Private Bag, Maseno
Portas Olwande , Department of Animal and Fisheries Sciences, Maseno University, P.O. Box Private Bag, Maseno
Department of Animal and Fisheries Sciences, Maseno University, P.O. Box Private Bag, Maseno
Chrispine Nyamweya, Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI), Kisumu Center, P.O. Box 1881, Kisumu
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI), Kisumu Center, P.O. Box 1881, Kisumu