Multivitamin Attenuation of Reproductive Hormone Suppression by Azadirachta Indica (Neem) Leaf Extract in Female Rattus norvegicus Rats

2026-02-14T15:41:13+00:00

Neem (Azadirachta indica) is a widely used medicinal plant known for its therapeutic value, particularly in areas with limited access to modern healthcare. However, studies indicate that neem may affect fertility by altering reproductive hormones. Its antifertility effects are mainly linked to compounds such as azadirachtin, nimbin, nimbidin, and nimbosterol, which can disrupt the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis and influence hormones like FSH, LH, and Oestrogen. Although these effects are documented, the role of multivitamin supplementation in moderating neem-induced hormonal changes remains unclear and requires further study. This study investigated the dose-dependent impact of neem leaf extract on reproductive hormones in female albino rats and assessed whether multivitamins could mitigate these effects. Mature neem leaves were collected from CITAM Kisumu and the University of Eldoret. Forty female albino rats sourced from Maseno University were acclimated for one month under controlled conditions (22–25°C, 12-hour light/dark cycle). Twenty-four healthy, sexually mature rats were randomly assigned to eight treatment groups. Ethanol-extracted neem preparations were administered orally, with or without multivitamins, for 28 days. Post-treatment, blood samples were analyzed for follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and Oestrogen using ELISA at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA, Tukey’s post hoc test, and regression analysis, with significance set at p<0.05. Results showed dose-dependent suppression of reproductive hormones by neem. FSH decreased from 8.27±0.35 ng/mL in controls to 3.27±0.21 ng/mL in the highest neem dose (100 mg/kg), similar to the contraceptive group (3.03±0.15 ng/mL). LH declined from 6.17±0.35 ng/mL in controls to 2.90±0.20 ng/mL (Neem100), versus 2.57±0.21 ng/mL in the contraceptive group. Oestrogen levels fell from 52.59±2.55 pg/mL in controls to 13.53±1.25 pg/mL in Neem100, while controls and contraceptives had comparable levels (50.97±1.36 pg/mL). Multivitamin supplementation partially reversed these suppressive effects, increasing FSH to 5.87±0.15 ng/mL, LH to 5.13±0.15 ng/mL, and Oestrogen to 54.33±1.17 pg/mL in the Neem100+MV group. One-way ANOVA revealed highly significant differences among treatment groups for FSH (F 0.05(4,10) =181.67, p<0.0001), LH (F0.05(4,10) =88.24, p<0.0001), and Oestrogen (F0.05(4,10) =306.53, p<0.0001). Correlation analysis showed a very strong positive correlation between FSH and LH (r=0.992, p<0.0001), while Oestrogen exhibited weak, non-significant correlations with FSH and LH. In conclusion, neem leaf extract exerts potent contraceptive effects through dose-dependent suppression of key reproductive hormones, while multivitamin supplementation partially counteracts these effects. These findings emphasize the need for cautious use of neem-based products among women of reproductive age and highlight the importance of understanding interactions between herbal remedies and nutritional supplements. Further research is warranted to clarify the underlying mechanisms and long-term implications of such interactions.

Water Quality Parameters Effect on Zooplankton Distribution, Diversity, and Abundance in Water Pans in Semi-Arid Narok Socio-Ecological Landscape, Kenya

2026-04-06T08:53:52+00:00

Water pans in the semi-arid Narok County are essential resources supporting domestic use, livestock production, small-scale irrigation, and aquatic biodiversity. However, these systems face increasing threats from climate variability, population growth, and land-use pressures that alter water quality and ecosystem functioning. Limited empirical data linking specific water-quality stressors such as elevated nitrogen and phosphorus, turbidity, and conductivity to zooplankton populations and ecosystem services hinders effective management in this landscape. This study examined the distribution, diversity, and abundance of zooplankton in relation to water-quality variations and contrasting land-use practices across 20 water pans in the Narok socio-ecological system. Monthly sampling was conducted in February, June, and July 2023, representing the late dry season, early wet season, and post-rainy period. Physico-chemical parameters were measured in situ, while nutrients and chlorophyll-a were analyzed using APHA 2017 standard protocols. Chlorophyll-a ranged from 19.08 ± 1.05 µg/L (M118) to 176.61 ± 140.19 µg/L (M396). TN varied from 393.00 ± 30.25 µg/L (M100) to 2,609.43 ± 52.47 µg/L (M392), and TP ranged from 295.43 to 1331.14 µg/L. Zooplankton communities were dominated by Rotifera (48.9%), followed by Copepoda (25.8%), Cladocera (19.9%), and Ostracoda (5%). Taxa richness increased from the dry season (14.21 ± 0.79) to the wet season (16.43 ± 0.67; p = 0.043), while Shannon-Wiener Index rose from 1.76 to 1.96 and Simpson’s Index reached 10.72. Diversity and richness showed a negative correlation with TN, indicating nutrient enrichment as a major stressor. The dominance of stress-tolerant Rotifers in nutrient-rich pans reflected catchment land-use influences. Conserving these semi-arid water pans through riparian buffer restoration, controlled livestock access, and improved water abstraction is important for sustaining zooplankton biodiversity and ecological integrity.

Journal of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems

Multivitamin Attenuation of Reproductive Hormone Suppression by Azadirachta Indica (Neem) Leaf Extract in Female Rattus norvegicus Rats

Water Quality Parameters Effect on Zooplankton Distribution, Diversity, and Abundance in Water Pans in Semi-Arid Narok Socio-Ecological Landscape, Kenya